Improving your English punctuation

It's important to know the rules of English punctuation when you write, as using the wrong punctuation may lead to misunderstandings. Using the correct punctuation is especially important when you are writing to impress, such as when you are applying for a new job, or when you are writing to a customer.

Here is a guide to the rules for using the more common punctuation marks in English.

When to use capital letters

1. At the beginning of the sentence

It's cold today.

2. For the personal pronoun "I"

I live in a big city.

3. For "proper nouns"

- names and titles: Sarah, Mr Stevens, Doctor Roberts
- places and countries: London, England,
- nationalities and languages: He is French, She speaks Italian
- companies, products and brands: Microsoft, Coca Cola
- institutions: The Ashmolean Museum, The Department of Trade
- religions and religious festivals: Christianity, Ramadan
- abbreviated names: The BBC

4. For books, television and radio programmes, newspapers and magazines

The Simpsons, The Times.

5. Days of the week and months of the year

Wednesday, August 10th.

6. Historical periods or events

The Russian Revolution

7. Rivers, mountains and lakes and geographical regions

The Amazon, The Middle East

8. In addresses

Flat 2, 16 London Road.

When to use commas in English

1. To separate items in a list

We need coffee, tea, sugar and milk.

British English writers do not normally put a comma before "and", although in American
English, a comma can be used.

"We need coffee, tea, sugar, and milk."

2. To separate clauses which are related in meaning

Do you know the answer, or should I ask Tony?

Where the clauses are short, commas are not used:

"I was tired so I went home."

3. After introductory phrases

Unfortunately, I cannot send you the information.

4. Before and after a word or phrase that interrupts the main clause

Some children,if they are gifted, attend special schools.

5. Before and after non-defining clauses

The factory workers, who were in a meeting, decided to accept the pay offer.
= All the factory workers were in a meeting.

Compare with a defining clause (which restricts the noun).

The factory workers who were in a meeting decided to accept the pay offer.
= Only the factory workers who were in a meeting decided to accept the offer: those workers who were not in the meeting didn't decide to accept the offer.

6. To show millions, thousands and hundreds

5, 890, 2811
10, 050

When to use a full stop

(or "period" in American English)

1. At the end of the sentence

Thank you for your letter.

2. After initials in American English

Mr. G. Hoover. (The British English version is "Mr G Hoover")

3. As a decimal point

2.5%, $9.99.

When to use a colon

1. To introduce a list

You will need to bring the following: a waterproof jacket, a change of clothes, a battery-operated torch and some matches.

2. To introduce explanations

There is one thing to remember: the nights can get cold, so bring a warm jacket.

3. To write the time
The 10:40 train to London is late.

4. Between the title and subtitle of a book

Shakespeare: The Complete Works

When to use a semi-colon in English

Semi-colons show a pause which is longer than a comma, but not as long as a full stop. Short clauses which are related in meaning can be separated by a comma. However, if the clauses are longer, you will probably need a semi-colon:

We'll need to hold some meetings abroad with our suppliers; please could you check your availability in April.

1. To separate long items in a list

Our writing course includes several components: correspondence, including
letters and emails; style and vocabulary choice; punctuation; layout and planning.

2. To give balance to sentences, or to link parallel sentences

We went out for the day; they stayed in.

When to use an apostrophe in English

1. With an s to show possession

The company's profits.

The 's comes after singular nouns and after irregular plural nouns (those which do not end in s).

The company's staff, the children's shoes.

But the apostrophe follows the swhen the noun is plural and regular.

Compare:

The boy's school (school of one boy) and the boys' school (school of many boys.)

With nouns which end in y in the singular, but end in ies in the plural (like company) the apostrophe follows the s when it is plural.

The company's profits (profits of one company) and the companies' profits (profits of more than one company.)

With hyphenated nouns, the 's comes at the end of the word.

My brother-in-law's Ferrarì.

2. To show abbreviation

I don't like smoking. (= do not)

3. In time references

In two weeks' time.

Be careful!

1. Apostrophes are not used for possessive pronouns.

Whose is this pen? (Not "Who's this pen" as "who's" = who is.

That pen is hers. (Not "That pen is her's.")

Its also exists as a possessive pronoun:

Its market has grown. (The market of the company).
(Not "It's market" as "it's" = it is or it has.)

2. Apostrophes are not used to make a plural of nouns that end in a vowel.

For example, "two memos" (not "two memo's").

Banking vocabulary

If you live for any period of time in the UK, you'll probably want to open a bank account. There are two main types of accounts: a current account and a savings account.

You can use a current account for your day-to-day banking needs. Your bank might give you a cheque book, which allows you to write cheques to pay for goods and services. You'll probably also have a bank card which allows you to withdraw cash from cash machines (also known as atm or "hole in the wall" machines) and to pay for goods in shops. You get a secret pin number (personal identification number) that you use when you withdraw cash.

If you receive a cheque, you can pay it in or deposit it at your bank. You can also pay in cash (money). If you want to convert your cheque into cash, you can cash the cheque. Some companies can also pay money into your account via a direct bank transfer.

A savings account should pay you interest. Most banks give you a different rate of interest depending on how much you are saving, and how much notice you give before withdrawing money.

In the UK, people traditionally use banks for a range of services. As well as an overdraft facility (where you borrow money from the bank), people also get a mortgage (loan to buy a house), personal loan, and insurance from their banks. High street banks (the sort of banks which you can find on any high street) are also good places to change money.

Many banks now offer telephone banking and internet banking. This means that you can manage your finances without going to the local branch (office) of your bank.

At the airport

If you take a flight from an airport in an English-speaking country, you're likely to hear some of these phrases.

Checking in

Did you pack these bags yourself?
Have you left these bags unattended?
Does the luggage belong to you?
Have you been with your bags the whole time?
Has anyone given you anything to take on the flight?
How many bags do you have to check in?
Do you have any hand luggage?
Are you carrying any restricted items?

Can I see your passport?
Would you like an aisle seat or a window seat? (aisle = next to the corridor)

Your gate number is … and your flight boards at …. (gate number = the numbered area of the airport where your flight leaves from)

Going through security

You need to put your hand luggage through the x-ray machine. Some items cannot be taken on board as hand luggage (such as knives, aerosol cans etc.) As you pass through security, you may set off the alarm. When this happens, the airport personnel search you.

In the departure lounge

When you pass through security, and before you board your flight, you can wait in the departure lounge. At international airports there is duty free shopping, where you can buy goods without paying taxes.

Airport announcements

Please proceed to gate number… (proceed = go to)
In a few moments we will be calling all passengers with priority boarding.
Please have your boarding card ready for inspection

Shopping in the sales

December 26 (or Boxing Day) is traditionally the start of the winter sales in the UK, when items are heavily discounted. In fact, bargain hunters can find some items reduced up to 50% off their pre-sale price.

Shops advertise unbeatable offers, with prices slashed (= cut) or sold at give-away prices. Many shops keep the sales on for a long period of time in order to clear stock ahead of new spring arrivals. You can often see signs saying Clearance Sale and Everything must go!

The best bargains are to be found at the beginning of the sales. Some people queue up overnight before the opening of the sales in order to snap up the best bargains. "Armchair shoppers" start shopping online even before the sales officially start. This year, there have been reports of record numbers of people through the doors, and huge amounts have been rung up on the tills in the first hours of trading. It seems as if the British are spending like there's no tomorrow!

presents in English

What can you say to give and receive presents in English? English families generally open presents together and these are some common phrases.

When you are giving a present to someone you know well, you can say…

This is for you.
I thought you might like this for Christmas…
It's only something small, but I hope you like it.
I thought this might go well with your (new dress / Prada bag..)

Receiving
Thank you so much! It's lovely / fantastic / wonderful.
It's something I've always wanted!
Wow! What a thoughtful present!

If you don't like something
Thank you so much!
How kind of you!
It's lovely, thank you!

What to write on present tags
To (name) with love from (name)
WIshing you a happy birthday, love (name)
With our love to you, (names of givers)
On a present to a non-family member
With best wishes for a happy Christmas, (name)

House vocabulary

Unless you live in a block of flats or a bungalow (one-storey house with or without an attic), British houses normally have two or three floors or stories. On the ground floor you're likely to find the living room, kitchen and dining room, while on the first floor you'll probably find bedrooms and a bathroom.

On the second or top floor is the attic, or loft. On the roof of many houses you can still see a chimney and chimney pot - even if the house now benefits from central heating.

The floors of a house are connected by stairs, with a landing (area) on the upper floor which leads to the upstairs rooms.

Most British houses are made of brick and cement. In a row of terrace houses (houses joined together), the interconnecting walls are cavity walls: they have a space between them to allow air to circulate. On the interiors, the walls are covered in plaster, and then either painted or decorated with wallpaper. The internal walls of a house fall into two categories: load-bearing walls (those that are structural and support the weight of the floors) and partition walls (those walls that divide rooms, but can be knocked down.) Floors and roofs are supported by strong>beams, which are long, heavy pieces of wood or metal.

Floors can be covered in a variety of materials, such as parquet (wooden squares), laminate flooring (a type of thin wooden plank), or tiles (either ceramic or vinyl). In living rooms and bedrooms, the floors are generally covered with carpets.

Houses are normally connected to local utilities, such as mains water, electricity and gas supply. In the countryside, not everyone is connected to mains gas, and some houses have gas tanks in their gardens. The vast majority of people are connected to the local sewage system (for waste water), but some people have their own septic tanks in their gardens to treat waste water. Houses that are connected to utilities have separate meters to show how much they consume. Representatives of these utility companies visit houses regularly to take meter readings - with which they can then bill their customers.

Some electrical jobs (such as wiring or rewiring = installing the electrical cables) should only be done by professional electricians, although you can still change a plug, or change a socket (the hole in the wall where you put the plug in to connect to the electricity supply). For safety reasons, the wiring in the house is on more than one circuit: lighting usually is on one circuit, and the sockets are on another circuit.

Some plumbing (water piping) jobs should also be done by professional plumbers. For example, although you can change taps, you should get a professional to install a gas boiler.

Some building work can be done without supervision. Many people enjoy doing DIY, such as putting up shelves, fitting cupboards and doors, assembling furniture and so on. However, for the big jobs, such as loft conversions and building extensions, you need to first apply for and obtain planning and building permission (from the local authorities) then employ a firm of builders.

In Britain, damp winter weather causes many problems to houses. For example, some houses can suffer from damp (humidity) or dry rot, caused by water seeping into walls and timber (wood). For this reason, houses have gutters (tubes attached just under the roof that run along the length of the house to catch rain water) and some may need regular damp proof treatment (special chemicals to prevent damp from spreading). Window sills (the piece of the wall - internal or external - in which the window is set) and window frames (the wood that goes around the window) should be made waterproof (so that water cannot get in), and most people have central heating via radiators to keep the air inside warm and dry. Special thermostats set on the wall help to regulate the temperature in the room. In addition, most people have insulation in the loft to keep warm air in, and cold air out.

Vocabulary for English language course

Many people go to the UK in summer to study English. Typically, they enrol in a language school for a fortnight (=two weeks) or even longer, and attend language classes in the morning. In the afternoon, there is often a choice between supplementary (= extra) lessons, or social activities, such as trips to museums or places of local interest, or sport activities. The school will probably also book your accommodation.

Maybe you will stay with a local family on a full-board (= accommodation and all meals included) or half-board (= accommodation plus breakfast and dinner) basis, or perhaps you will stay in student accommodation, such as a hall of residence (= specially-built accommodation for students attending English universities).

Before you start your English course, you'll probably need to do a placement test, which will assess your language level. If you're attending a business English course, you'll probably also do a needs analysis, which pinpoints the areas of business English that you need to work on.

Most language schools offer a range of courses. For instance, you might decide to have your lessons in a small group, or you might prefer a one-to-one or individual course. Schools also offer exam-preparation courses (for the Cambridge or TOEFL exams) as well as YL (young learner = children) courses and ESP (English for Specific Purposes) courses.

Your teacher should be TEFL-qualified, which means that he or she has undergone specific training to teach English as a foreign language. He or she should be sensitive to your problems or needs, as well as able to manage the classroom effectively and to provide a range of learning activities.

However, it's also true to say that you "get out what you put in": the harder you study, and the more you take advantage of being in an English-speaking country, the faster you will improve your English.

things in English

Asking clerks or at help desks

(Hello.) Can / Could I have ….. please? (Falling intonation)

(Good morning.) Can / Could you give / get me ….. please?

(Good evening.) A table for two, please.

Interrupting people to ask them for something

Excuse me…

…. Do you know if…?
…. Do you have…?
…. Do you accept …. (credit cards)?
…. Is this the right way for…. (the Post Office)?
…. Could you tell me if …. (there's a Post Office near here)?

In more formal situations

Excuse me…

…. Would you mind …. (keeping an eye on my luggage?)
…. I wonder if you could …. (move your suitcase a little.)

Responding to questions

You ask for something, then the person you have asked needs more information. He or she asks you a question. If you haven't expected this, you can "play for time" - say something to give you time to think. Say something like "Oh", "Ah", "Um", or "Er" to give you a second or two to formulate an answer. Remember, complete silence makes the other person feel uneasy!

You: "Two tickets to Glasgow, please."
Clerk: "Single or return?"
You: "Um, return please. We're coming back tomorrow."

(You are at the bureau de change)
Clerk: How would you like your money?
You: Oh, er, three tens and a five, please.

You: "Hello. Can I have a leaflet about London museums, please."
Clerk: "Sure. Anything else?"
You: "Um, do you have any information about musicals?"

Tips

When you ask someone for something, or you ask them to do something for you, it is essential to be as polite as possible. Here are some ways that you can be polite.

Say hello

A "hello" and a smile go a long way! Say "hello" at the beginning of your request.

"Hello. (I'd like) a travel card, please."

In more formal situations, you can say "Good morning", "Good afternoon" or "Good evening". (Remember, we only say "Good night" if we're saying "Good bye" at the end of the day.)

"Good evening. We've booked a table for four."

Remember "please" and "thank you"

"Please" normally goes at the end of the sentence:

"Two tickets please."
"Can you give me directions to Oxford Street, please."

Say "thank you" after you have received something:

"Here's your change."
"Thank you."

You can use "Yes, please" or "No, thank you" in response to a question:

"Would you like salad with your pizza?"
"Yes, please" or "No, thank you."

Say "excuse me"

If you ask someone who is doing something else, remember to say "excuse me":

"Excuse me, do yo have this dress in a smaller size?" (In a shop)
"Excuse me, do you know where the nearest bank is?" (On the street)

Structure of an example conversation

1. Clerk greets you

(Good morning.) How can I help you?
What can I do for you?

2. You ask for something

Hello. I'd like some information about…
Can I have….
Three stamps for Europe, please.

3. Clerk asks you a question

Single or return?
Air-mail or surface mail?

4. You answer

Oh, er, single thanks.
Um, let me see. Air-mail please.

5. Clerk asks you if you need anything else

Will that be all?
(Is there) anything else?

6. You answer

Ah, actually I'd also like…
No, that's it thanks / thank you.

See also "Making requests" in the Speaking section.

directions in English

Asking for directions

"How do I get to your office?"

"Can you tell me the best way of getting to your office?"

"What's the quickest way of getting to your office?"

"Where are you exactly?"

Getting information

"Will you be coming by car or by train?"

"It's much easier if you take the train."

"Which hotel are you staying at?"

General information in English

"We're not far from…" or "We're quite close to…"

"It's about a mile / kilometre / two blocks from…"

"We're opposite / next to / in front of / across the road from / round the corner from the supermarket."

Giving directions in English

"Come off the motorway / highway at Junction / Exit 12."

"It's signposted 'Manchester'."

"Follow the signs to …"

"There's a one-way system in the centre of town."

"Take the 'A12' to 'Chelmsford'."

"Go straight on / left / right at the lights / at the roundabout /at the junction of … and …"

"Go past the supermarket."

"You'll come to / see …"

"It's the first turning on the right after the bank."

Use landmarks to help

"You'll see a large sign / roundabout."

"On your left you'll see an industrial centre / a hospital / the police station."

"Just after the level crossing / shopping centre (or mall)."

"Go past the petrol station / the garage."

Final tips

If you're giving directions over the phone, remember to speak slowly to allow the other person to write things down.

Check that the other person has understood.

If you're speaking face-to-face with someone, use your hands to show left, right, or straight on.

Use "please" when you ask someone to give you directions. It's polite, and will normally get you what you want!

Visiting the doctor

The first time you visit a new doctor, you should talk about your medical history - the illnesses you have had, any operations you have had and so on. Your doctor might want to give you a check-up.

A check-up will include monitoring your blood pressure, as high blood pressure is serious and can lead to life-threatening conditions. Your doctor will probably also take your pulse to check that your heart rate is normal.

A doctor uses a stethoscope to listen to your breathing - particularly if you have a heart or chest infection, or a condition such as asthma.

Of course, you can also visit the doctor for a huge range of other reasons. Children need to have their injections and if you are going abroad on holiday, you might also need to have injections against infectious diseases. In winter, you can also get a flu vaccine so that you won't get the flu.

If you need medication, a doctor will write you a prescription. You can get your prescription filled at a chemist.

For more serious medical conditions, you can get a referral to a clinic or a hospital. You might need blood tests done, or you might need an X-ray, or you might need to see a specialist.

(See also "medical vocabulary" in the vocabulary section.)

Restaurant English

Describing the menu

"The dish of the day" / "daily special" = what the restaurant is featuring.

"What's the dish of the day?"
"It's the chef's omelette."

"set menu" = a menu where the starter, main course and dessert are chosen by the restaurant.

"a la carte" = where you choose what you want to eat from the menu.

Asking for a description of the food

"What is 'fisherman's pie' exactly?"
"Is this dish vegetarian?"
"What's in spaghetti vongole?"
"Does this dish come with any vegetables?"
"Can you tell me how this dish is prepared?"

Describing food

"It's a meat dish, garnished with parsley."
A garnish is something that is served with the food, not mixed in.

"It's topped with cheese."
Topped is something that goes on top of the food.

"It's served with a side salad."
Side salad is salad served in a bowl or separate plate.

Sauces can be cheesy (made with cheese), savoury (not sweet), creamy (smooth), spicy (made with chilli peppers) or delicate (a subtle, rather than strong taste).

Desserts can be rich (very filling with a strong taste, like chocolate gateau), light (not heavy in taste or texture, like a sorbet), tangy (with a sharp taste of lemon or orange, like a lemon pie), or fruity (made with fruit, like trifle).

Ordering in a restaurant - things waiters say

"Are you ready to order yet?"
"Have you decided what you are having?"
"Would you like anything to drink with your meal?"
"Can I recommend the chef's special?"

Ordering in a restaurant - things customers say

"We'd like a little longer, please."
"Could you give us a couple more minutes?"
"We really can't decide. Can you advise us?"

* See also Food Vocab in the Vocabulary section

Shopping vocabulary

Types of shops in English

department store - a shop that sells many different items in different departments. Harrods is probably the world's best known department store.

supermarket - a large shop that sells mostly food and household items.

grocer (UK) / grocery store (US) - a shop that sells food.

greengrocer - sells fresh fruit and vegetables.

butcher - sells fresh meat.

baker - sells fresh bread and cakes.

fishmonger - sells fresh fish.

chemist (UK) / drugstore (US) - sells medicines and toiletries.

pharmacy (US) - sells medicines.

newsagent - sells newspapers and magazines.

stationer - sells paper goods.

optician - sells glasses / contact lenses.

DIY store - sells things for home improvement.

hardware shop / hardware store / ironmonger - hard goods, such as nails and screws.

corner shop (UK) - a shop on the corner of your street, selling a range of basic goods - food, newspapers, sweets, bread, etc.

delicatessen (deli) - sells specialist food not normally found in supermarkets. For example, an Italian deli, an Asian deli.

bookshop / bookstore - books.

market - market traders (people who work on a market) have stalls that sell fruit and vegetables, clothes, household items and so on.

petshop - for pets and pet food.

flea market - a group of stalls selling old furniture or clothes.

tea shop (UK) - like a cafe, but sells tea and cakes.

petrol station (UK) / gas station (US) sells petrol, car products and sometimes food.

Using 's

When we talk about shops, we often put an 's on the end. For example, "I'm going to the chemist's / greengrocer's / butcher's / baker's / newsagent's / fishmonger's/ optician's."

We don't use an 's with these shops: supermarket, hardware store, petrol station, department store.

Asking for things

"Do you have any…?"
"I'm looking for…"
"I wonder if you could help me…?"

What the shopkeeper says

"I'm sorry, we're out of stock."
"I'm sorry, that's the last one."
"I'm sorry, that's all we have left."

What a sales person says

"Can I help you?"
"Are you looking for anything in particular?"

Your reply

"I'm just looking, thank you."
"I'm just browsing, thank you."

Asking about things

"Do you have this in another size?"
"Do you have this in another colour?"
"Is this made of leather / silk / plastic…?"
"Does this come with a guarantee?"
"Is this fully refundable?"
"Can I bring this back if it's not the right size?"
"Can I bring this back if it doesn't fit?"

Paying - what the shopkeeper says

"Do you have anything smaller?" (If you pay with a large denomination note.)

Paying - what you say

"I'm sorry, I don't have any small change."
"I don't have anything smaller."
"Would you have change for this?"
"Can I have the receipt, please?'
"Can I pay by credit card?"
"Can I pay in cash?"
"Is this on sale?"

letters and emails

Layout and format

"Thank you" letters can be quite short, and fill one or two sides of A5 paper (one side of A5 paper is half the size of a sheet of A4 or office paper). You can write your address in the top left hand corner of the paper, but you don't need to write the recipient's address. You can also write the date under your address.

You normally start the letter "Dear…" followed by the name of the person you are writing to.

In the first paragraph (which can be short), you should thank the person for the gift and say something complimentary about it:

"Thank you for the book tokens. I'm looking forward to choosing a book with them."

"Thank you for the wall calendar. It will be very useful to me this year!"

"Thank you very much for the beautiful soaps. I'm looking forward to relaxing in a hot bath!"

"Thank you very much for the lovely photo frame. It will look very nice on my chest of drawers."

"Thank you very much for the elegant scarf you sent me. It's exactly what I need for special occasions."

In the second paragraph, you can give general news about how you spent the holiday period (or how you spent your birthday if you have received a birthday present). You could also show interest in the other person's holiday.

"We had a very quiet and relaxing Christmas at home. The kids ate too many chocolates as usual, so now we're all on a diet! I hope your Christmas was as good, and that you were able to relax for a few days."

In the third paragraph you can talk about more general family or personal news.

In the final paragraph, you should thank the person again for their gift, and give your wishes for the New Year if applicable. (See below for useful phrases for ending the letter.)

Learn English Newsletter

How was 2008 for you? In the reading section of the site, there's an overview of some of the main events of last year.

There's also a new page on English idioms using "cold".

Over on our sister site, there's a new article on improving team communication.

2. New blog!

Everyone's welcome to comment on the posts in our new blog. Either click the link here or scroll down underneath the comments on the right hand side of the home page of the site.

3. Vocabulary quiz

What one word can go in the spaces in each group below?

Group 1
— stuff
— dinner
— plate

Group 2
— turkey
— comfort
— call

Group 3
— spell
— side up
— disposition

Answers

Group 1 (hot)
hot stuff
hot dinner
hot plate

(See the page on English idioms using "hot")

Group 2 (cold)
cold turkey
cold comfort
cold call

Group 3 (sunny)
sunny spell (when the weather is sunny for a while)
sunny side up (when your fried egg is served with the yolk facing up)
sunny disposition (a happy type of person)

That's all for this issue. See you in February 2009